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- Origins of raw milk consumption in the Iberian Peninsula and Portuguese territory: archaeogenetics and zooarchaeologyPublication . Garcez Fernandes, Gonçalo; Valente, Maria João; Oliveira, Hugo; Fernandes Martins, Maria JoãoIn Europe, lactose tolerance after weaning (lactase persistence – LP) is determined by a single mutation in the MCM6 gene. The timing and mode of the emergence of raw milk consumption in Portuguese territory have not been addressed, despite its significance in Portuguese subsistence and culinary tradition. To identify the earliest instance of the LP mutation, we examined this locus in ancient DNA (aDNA) data from Iberian individuals spanning from the Palaeolithic to the Modern Age, available in the Allen Ancient DNA Resource database. Additionally, we reviewed zooarchaeological data on domesticated milk-producing species from bibliographic sources. In Iberia, the earliest occurrence of the LP mutation dates to the Early Bronze Age. The individual also carried the Y-chromosome Haplogroup R1b, typically associated with the hypothesised Yamnaya movement during this period. In Portugal, the first individual with LP dates to the Roman Period. Zooarchaeological data suggest that milk was consumed in small quantities in Portugal until the Roman Period. Milk production increased more significantly during the Middle Ages, but its impact on LP remains to be determined.
- Mapping lateral stratigraphy at Palaeolithic surface sites: a case study from Dhofar, OmanPublication . Rose, Jeffrey Ian; Hilbert, Yamandú H.; Usyk, Vitaly I.; Bebber, Michelle R.; Beshkani, Amir; Buchanan, Briggs; Cascalheira, João; Chlachula, Dominik; Dellmour, Rudolf; Eren, Metin I.; Garba, Roman; Hallinan, Emily; Li, Li; Walker, Robert S.; Marks, Anthony E.Open-air accumulations of chipped stone debris are a common feature in arid landscapes, yet despite their prevalence, such archives are often dismissed as uninformative or unreliable. In the canyonlands of Dhofar, southern Oman, lithic surface scatters are nearly ubiquitous, including extensive, multi-component workshops associated with chert outcrops. These sites typically display chronologically diagnostic features that correspond to distinct taphonomic states, which in turn appear linked to spatial distribution, with more heavily weathered artifacts often found farther from the chert outcrops. We propose that post-depositional modifications and spatial distributions of chipped stone artifacts reflect site formation processes and, under certain conditions, may provide relative chronological information when absolute dating methods are unavailable. Our study tests this hypothesis by mapping artifact distribution and lithic taphonomy across a series of surface sites in southern Oman, spanning the Lower, Middle, and Upper/Late Palaeolithic periods. The results largely support our model, offering valuable insights into surface site formation and technological change over time. While these findings serve as broad predictive markers for age, their applicability for analyzing finer-scale assemblage variability remains to be determined. Future taphonomic recording systems should aim to quantify surface modifications to enhance replicability for such studies.
- Exploring early acheulian technological decision-making: a controlled experimental approach to raw material selection for percussive artifacts in Melka Wakena, EthiopiaPublication . Paixão, Eduardo; Gossa, Tegenu; Gneisinger, Walter; Marreiros, Joao; Tholen, Sören; Calandra, Ivan; Hovers, ErellaThe evolution of human behaviour is marked by key decision-making processes reflected in technological variability in the early archaeological record. As part of the technological system, differences in raw material quality directly affect the way that humans produce, design and use stone tools. The selection, procurement and use of various raw materials requires decision-making to evaluate multiple factors such as suitability to produce and design tools, but also the materials’ efficiency and durability in performing a given task. Therefore, characterizing the physical properties of various lithic raw materials is crucial for exploring changes in human interactions with their natural environment through time and space and for understanding their technological behaviour. In this paper, we present the first step in an ongoing program designed to understand the decision-making criteria involved in the use of raw materials by the early Acheulian tool-makers at the Melka Wakena (MW) site-complex, located on the Ethiopian highlands. We present the results of the first experimental step, in which we identified and measured the engineering properties of raw materials in the lithic assemblages. These data serve as an objective, quantifiable baseline for natural experiments as well as archaeological inquiries into the technological decision-making processes of early Pleistocene hominins in Africa.
- A multi-embankment Chalcolithic walled enclosurePublication . Texugo, André; Basílio, Ana Catarina; Pina, Pedro; Goyanes, Gabriel; Vieira, GonçaloOta, a key part of the Chalcolithic walled enclosure phenomenon in Portuguese Estremadura, represents a unique settlement strategy within the actual territory of Portugal. The architecture and social dynamics of this site remained largely unexplored until 2019. This study marks a significant shift in its study, utilizing a synergistic approach of archaeology and geotechnologies, embodied in the using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle equipped with LiDAR. This innovative combination successfully pene trated the dense vegetation, revealing 21 previously unknown archaeological features. The re sults from the fieldwork unveiled a novel type of walled enclosure at Ota, characterized by a series of four embankments. This discovery prompts a re-evaluation of the roles and practices of 3rd millennium BC com munities in Portuguese Estremadura. Furthermore, the proven efficacy of this methodology paves the way for its application in similar archaeological contexts. The paper presents a comprehensive analy sis of the recent fieldwork, integrating interpretations from LiDAR data, material studies and 14C dating.
- Reliable long-term individual variation in wild chimpanzee technological efficiencyPublication . Berdugo, Sophie; Cohen, E.; Davis, A. J.; Matsuzawa, T.; Carvalho, SusanaVariation in the efficiency of extracting calorie-rich and nutrient-dense resources directly impacts energy expenditure and potentially has important repercussions for cultural transmission where social learning strategies are used. Assessing variation in efficiency is key to understanding the evolution of complex behavioural traits in primates. Here we examine evidence for individual-level differences beyond age- and sex-class in non-human primate extractive foraging efficiency. We used 25 years (1992–2017) of video of 21 chimpanzees aged ≥6 years in Bossou, Guinea, to longitudinally investigate individual-level differences in stone tool use efficiency. Data from 3,882 oil-palm nut-cracking bouts from >800 h of observation were collected. We found reliability in relative efficiency across four measures of nut-cracking efficiency, as well as a significant effect of age. Our findings highlight the importance of longitudinal data from long-term field sites when investigating underlying cognitive and behavioural diversity across individual lifespans and between populations.
- Alternating carnivore and Neanderthal activities at Escoural Cave: insights from the taphonomic and machine learning analysis of leporid remainsPublication . Cobo-Sánchez, Lucía; Rufà, Anna; Cascalheira, JoãoExploring the varied subsistence strategies and cave occupation patterns of Neanderthals is key to understanding their complex behaviors and ecological adaptations. Small game consumption, in particular, is considered a relevant indicator of their behavioral complexity. Rabbit assemblages from Pleistocene cave sites provide valuable insights into Neanderthal interactions with small prey and potential competition with carnivores. Here, we present the first detailed taphonomic analysis of faunal remains from Escoural Cave (Portugal), where a European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) assemblage was found alongside Middle Paleolithic stone tools and some macromammal remains. This study combines traditional zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis of the rabbit remains with multivariate statistics and machine learning methods to establish the origin of the accumulation, and the implications for Neanderthal subsistence and cave use. Results from the taphonomic analysis show no evidence of human consumption but abundant evidence of small terrestrial carnivore activity, primarily from lynxes. This could indicate a sequential occurrence of Neanderthal and carnivore activities in the cave, with Neanderthal activities likely related to something other than rabbit consumption.
- Experimental replication of early human behaviour in bird preparation: a pilot-study focusing on bone surface modification and breakage patternsPublication . Nabais, Mariana; Rufà, Anna; Igreja, MarinaThe origin of complex behaviour amongst early humans is a subject of heated debate within the scientific community, and the study of small prey remains has become a significant aspect when examining such modern behaviour. Nonetheless, the consumption of small prey by human populations poses analytical diculties due to the often negligible, or entirely absent, traces on bone surfaces. To address this diculty, an experimental study focusing on terrestrial avifauna has been prepared, and here we present a preliminary phase of this research. The aim is to distinguish potential modifications on bird bone surfaces and fracture patterns that might facilitate the recognition of human manipulation of avian skeletal remains. Building upon the challenges encountered in the study of archaeological findings recovered from recent excavations in Iberian Middle Palaeolithic sites, the experimental protocol was formulated to encompass the processing of two uncooked and three roasted birds; and the lithic use-wear analysis of the flint flake used in the processing of raw birds. The results showcase distinct patterns of bone surface modifications and breakage between cooked and uncooked birds. Higher numbers of cut marks and manual disarticulation breaks are found on raw animals, whereas roasted animals show no cut marks, local-specific burns and higher bone loss. This pilot-study provides a baseline for future research to further explore the role of avifauna in Neanderthal subsistence and food processing, which may help highlight cultural choices.
- Identifying accurate artefact morphological ranges using optimal linear estimation: method validation, case studies, and codePublication . Key, Alastair; Eren, Metin I.; Bebber, Michelle R.; Buchanan, Briggs; Cortell-Nicolau, Alfredo; Martín-Ramos, Carmen; Peña, Paloma de la; Petrie, Cameron A.; Proffitt, Tomos; Robb, John; Michelaki, Konstantina-Eleni; Jarić, IvanA fundamental goal of archaeologists is to infer the behaviour of past humans from the attributes of the artefacts they left behind. The archaeological record is, however, fragmented and often provides a partial record of the total artefacts produced by a given population. In turn, there is potential for population-level morphometric data, and therefore behavioural inferences, to be biased relative to the trends realised in the past. This includes morphological range data which are important for identifying similarities and differences between artefact groups, and for contextualising artefacts relative to external variables such as human anatomy, ecology, climate and chronology. Here, we investigate whether optimal linear estimation (OLE) modelling can be used to accurately identify the upper and lower limits of artefact morphological ranges (including those represented by sparse datasets). First, we test whether OLE reliably identifies morphological ranges using randomly sampled subsets of ‘known and complete’ replica artefact assemblages. Using morphometric data from lithic, ceramic, and metal archaeological case studies, we then identify how much further the upper and lower form limits of these artefact types would have been in the past, relative to the ranges evidenced by excavated (i.e., known partial) records. Validation tests demonstrate OLE to be capable of providing broadly accurate estimates for the true morpho logical range of artefact assemblages. Estimate accuracy increases relative to the percentage of the total assemblage used and the method is shown to function well using as few as five records (k) from an assemblage. The case studies reveal how OLE can overhaul or reinforce our understanding of artefact morphological ranges. In some instances, it is clear that the archaeological record provides a highly accurate representation of artefact morphological ranges and the overlap between artefact groups. For others, it is demonstrated that our understanding of the extreme artefact forms produced by past people is likely inaccurate
- Microstratigraphic, lipid biomarker and stable isotope study of a middle Palaeolithic combustion feature from Axlor, SpainPublication . Jambrina-Enríquez,Margarita; Mallol, Carolina; Herrera Herrera, Antonio V.; Gonzalez-Urquijo, Jesús; Lazuen, TalíaCombustion features are key archaeological sedimentary deposits comprising combustion residues (charcoal, phytoliths, and heated bone, stone or pottery) and thermally altered sediments.1,2 In Middle Paleolithic research, they are especially relevant given their prominence in the archaeological record and provide us with information on the technological, economic and cultural aspects of some of the activities carried out by different human groups.3–5 The current data from different sites throughout Iberia indicate that Iberian Neanderthals used different species of wood as fuel depending on the availability of wood in the forests in the immediate vicinity of the sites (pine or thermomediterranean species); in addition to local availability, fuel gathering preferences appear to have involved the state and caliber of the wood.4 Alternative fuels such as animal fat, bones, resin, leaves, and pinecones were also used as a complement to primary fuels, as well as for ignition and maintenance.4 Archaeological combustion features can represent intact combustion activity contexts (e.g., combustion residues on a ground surface) or contexts reworked by humans, wind, or water (i.e., redeposited combustion residues).2 Their identification and characterization in the field is difficult due to the complexity of archaeological site formation processes.6 Interdisciplinary microcontextual approaches have shown high potential to infer past fire-related activities and contribute to the behavioral information of past human societies as well as to reconstruct past environments.7 Using soil micromorphology in conjunction with other high-resolution analytical techniques can help identify combustion residues and their microstratigraphic relationships.8 Over the last few years, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) and Gas Chromatography Combustion Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS) high-resolution analyses have been performed on sedimentary deposits associated to combustion features to address the organic residues sources.9–16 Particularly, the lipid biomarker study on black layers (the charred ground beneath the fire11), both in experimental17–19 and in archaeological11–16 samples have shown the high preservation of lipid biomarker fingerprint on charred organic matter.
- Large scale and regional demographic responses to climatic changes in Europe during the final palaeolithicPublication . Schmidt, Isabell; Gehlen, Birgit; Winkler, Katja; Arrizabalaga, Alvaro; Arts, Nico; Bicho, Nuno; Crombé, Philippe; Eriksen, Berit Valentin; Grimm, Sonja B.; Kapustka, Katarina; Langlais, Mathieu; Mevel, Ludovic; Naudinot, Nicolas; Nerudová, Zdeňka; Niekus, Marcel; Peresani, Marco; Riede, Felix; Sauer, Florian; Schön, Werner; Sobkowiak-Tabaka, Iwona; Vandendriessche, Hans; Weber, Mara-Julia; Zander, Annabell; Zimmermann, Andreas; Maier, Andreas; Przemysław MroczekThe European Final Palaeolithic witnessed marked changes in almost all societal domains. Despite a rich body of evidence, our knowledge of human palaeodemographic processes and regional population dynamics still needs to be improved. In this study, we present regionally differentiated population estimates for the Greenland Interstadial 1d-a (GI-1d-a; 14-12.7 ka cal BP) and the Greenland Stadial 1 (GS-1; 12.7-11.6 ka cal BP) for Southern, Western, Northern and Central Europe. The data were obtained by applying the Cologne Protocol, a geostatistical approach for estimating prehistoric population size and density, to a newly compiled dataset of Final Palaeolithic sites. On a large spatio-temporal scale and compared to preceding Upper Palaeolithic phases, areas north of the Alps become the dominant demographic growth area for the first time since the dispersal of anatomically modern humans into Europe. At smaller scales, we observe divergent regional trends, with a conspicuous lack of archaeological evidence appearing in previously occupied areas of central France and Germany. Our study also shows that during the Final Palaeolithic, the climatic cooling of GS-1 coincides with a pronounced population decline in most parts of the study area. An apparent increase in population density occurs only in north-eastern Central Europe and north-eastern Italy. Our estimates suggest that the total population was reduced by half. Similar results, with a relationship between decreasing temperatures and decreasing populations, have already been observed for the late phase of the Gravettian, when populations were reduced to only one third of those estimated for the early phase. Yet, in contrast to the collapse of local populations during the late Gravettian, the increase in population densities in Central Europe during GS-1 indicates population movements eastwards, possibly in response to deteriorating climatic conditions, particularly in western regions during the Younger Dryas.